28 CFR Part 35 · Subpart E — Communications
§ 35.160 General
Last updated June 11, 2026
What 28 CFR §35.160 requires of state and local governments.
In Plain Language
Public entities must ensure that communications with people with disabilities are as effective as communications with others. This requires providing appropriate auxiliary aids and services, such as sign language interpreters, captioning, large print, accessible electronic formats, and other supports. The entity must give primary consideration to the person's preferred format. Cost is not a complete defense, but undue burden may limit what is required.
This summary is not official legal text. For authoritative guidance, consult the official regulatory text and Department of Justice guidance at ada.gov.
This summary is educational, not legal advice. The official text below controls.
Official Regulatory Text — 28 CFR § 35.160
Verbatim from 28 CFR Part 35, current through June 9, 2026.
(a)(1) A public entity shall take appropriate steps to ensure that communications with applicants, participants, members of the public, and companions with disabilities are as effective as communications with others.
(2) For purposes of this section, “companion” means a family member, friend, or associate of an individual seeking access to a service, program, or activity of a public entity, who, along with such individual, is an appropriate person with whom the public entity should communicate.
(b)(1) A public entity shall furnish appropriate auxiliary aids and services where necessary to afford individuals with disabilities, including applicants, participants, companions, and members of the public, an equal opportunity to participate in, and enjoy the benefits of, a service, program, or activity of a public entity.
(2) The type of auxiliary aid or service necessary to ensure effective communication will vary in accordance with the method of communication used by the individual; the nature, length, and complexity of the communication involved; and the context in which the communication is taking place. In determining what types of auxiliary aids and services are necessary, a public entity shall give primary consideration to the requests of individuals with disabilities. In order to be effective, auxiliary aids and services must be provided in accessible formats, in a timely manner, and in such a way as to protect the privacy and independence of the individual with a disability.
(c)(1) A public entity shall not require an individual with a disability to bring another individual to interpret for him or her.
(2) A public entity shall not rely on an adult accompanying an individual with a disability to interpret or facilitate communication except—
(i) In an emergency involving an imminent threat to the safety or welfare of an individual or the public where there is no interpreter available; or
(ii) Where the individual with a disability specifically requests that the accompanying adult interpret or facilitate communication, the accompanying adult agrees to provide such assistance, and reliance on that adult for such assistance is appropriate under the circumstances.
(3) A public entity shall not rely on a minor child to interpret or facilitate communication, except in an emergency involving an imminent threat to the safety or welfare of an individual or the public where there is no interpreter available.
(d) Video remote interpreting (VRI) services. A public entity that chooses to provide qualified interpreters via VRI services shall ensure that it provides—
(1) Real-time, full-motion video and audio over a dedicated high-speed, wide-bandwidth video connection or wireless connection that delivers high-quality video images that do not produce lags, choppy, blurry, or grainy images, or irregular pauses in communication;
(2) A sharply delineated image that is large enough to display the interpreter's face, arms, hands, and fingers, and the participating individual's face, arms, hands, and fingers, regardless of his or her body position;
(3) A clear, audible transmission of voices; and
(4) Adequate training to users of the technology and other involved individuals so that they may quickly and efficiently set up and operate the VRI.
[Order No. 1512-91, 56 FR 35716, July 26, 1991, as amended by AG Order No. 3180-2010, 75 FR 56183, Sept. 15, 2010]
What § 35.160 Means in Practice
- Communication with people with disabilities must be as effective as communication with everyone else
- Public entities must furnish appropriate auxiliary aids and services: interpreters, captioning, braille, accessible electronic formats, and more
- Primary consideration must be given to the aid or service the individual requests
- The rule also protects companions with disabilities, such as a Deaf parent at a school meeting
- Entities cannot require a person to bring someone to interpret, and can rely on an accompanying adult only in narrow emergency or requested situations
Common Questions
Can we refuse a sign language interpreter because it is expensive?
Only if providing one would constitute an undue financial or administrative burden. The burden of proving that falls on the entity. Cost alone is generally not sufficient.
Does effective communication cover our website?
Yes. Web accessibility is a form of ensuring effective communication. An inaccessible website denies effective communication to users with disabilities.
Does § 35.160 apply to your entity?
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